More Words of Life

In ancient Wales, at fourteen the male was to become essentially a ward of the state (gwlad). [See "At His Father's Platter", April 28, 2011.]

From the age of twelve years, the female was able to be given "to a husband". [See "Daughters", May 1, 2011.]

The following table gives more words of life, beginning with "boy" to "man", and "girl" to "women".

In the Welsh, "B" words again stay with the males, but "M" words shift to the women. The English of course follows the Anglo-Saxon. No real pattern continues for the Greek, Latin, and French. Again, the Welsh shows its distinct language for the sounds it makes to give the words of life.

The table is the same given last post, but the additional words are shown in "human development" order, giving a chronology of words which pronounce the stages of life.

Words of Life

Language is one part of a culture that defines its existance. Words express emotions, demands, descriptions, wants and desires, and become the words of life.

The following table list some foundational words of life. In our English language the word "life" come from the Anglo-Saxon "lif". In the Greek, it is "zoe" where the word zoology comes. In French it is "vie", and in Latin it is "vita". In the Welsh it is "bywyd".

The table shows other words of life from its beginnings. Birth, baby, infant, and child are shown for the English, Welsh, Latin, French, Greek, and Anglo-Saxon. Latin (Romans), French (Normans), and Anglo-Saxon all had something to do with the land of the Welsh. The Welsh words clearly show a difference in their structure, apparently not influenced by all these other cultures. They are words of the lips..."B" words, or bilabial. This shows the Celtic influence of its "P-Celtic" roots. [See post "Mind your P's and Q's", August 5, 2010, http://thejonessurname.blogspot.com ] I guess when they saw one of those heads start to pop out, the "gaw" factor took over!

Words of life, spoken differently though the tongues of men. The Welsh had their own way.

New Blog: The Brick Wall Protocol

Just started a new blog for those doing genealogy who face a "brick wall". See: http://thebrickwallprotocol.blogspot.com Welsh genealogy certainly has a few!

Paramount

Paramount to medieval Welsh culture was the "cenedl"...the kindred. In medieval Wales this was important for social stability and cultural survival. Inheritance of land and compensation for injury was accounted through the kindred. Surrounding the "cenedl" was the land occupied and claimed by the family. All families needed houses, and the plot of land carrying a house (ty) was called a "toft". Essentially the word implies land that was enclosed, thus giving rise to a settlement involving animals and gardens. Food production became the essential activity, and the land and homestead became the "tref".

Previous posts defined the "legal acre", which helped set boundaries and locations for plowing and feeding animals. Welsh law defined that four such acres would be in a "toft". The kindred shared land, and four "tofts" were to be in every "shareland". Thus, four related families might share around 16 acres. Now, four "sharelands" would be consided a "holding". This would mean that roughly 16 families would occupy and share 64 "legal acres" of land. Perhaps 32-40 family members.

Four "holdings" would become a "townland". Not in the same sense as we know towns today, but a group of rural families having an identity. Thus, 256 acres would organize a kindred into a recognizable unit.

Four "townlands" would provide a population needing political and judicial activity, recognizing that so many folks would come to disagreement. This was known as the "maenol" (manor), and became the center of legal activities. [The name "mayor" comes from this organization.] Now you can imagine the complexity as the number of family members grew. So roughly there was 1024 acres in every "maenol". [Remember today that 1 square mile contains 640 acres, so this would be around 1.5 to 2 square miles.]

Now 12 "maenols" (Maenolydd) would make up a "commote". This became the smallest social unit of administration for the multiple family groups that came to occupy the land. This would roughly be 12, 800 acres of land. [About 20 square miles.] This would be like a "county" in one of the states. Two "commotes" became a "cantred" (canfref). The "candred" identified as tribal land. Thus a tribe would be seen as a group of "kindred" occupying an area of land which acted together for peace and war. They were responsible for handling all criminal and civil issues occurring within their "cantref".

So let's review.

4 legal acres in every toft (farm with a house),
16 legal acres in every shareland (4 tofts = 4 farmsteads working together),
64 legal acres in every holding (4 sharelands),
256 legal acres in every townland (4 holdings),
1024 legal acres in every maenol (4 townlands),
12,800 legal acres in a commonte (12 maenols),
two commotes in the canfred. (English verson of Welsh Word is cantref.)

Wow, just think this all started with a kernel of barleycorn!

Information abstracted from Hywel Dda The Law, Law Texts From Medieval Wales, Translated and Edited by Dafydd Jenkins, Gomer Press, 1990.

The Legal Acre

Farming with a plow in the early days certainly had its troubles. When settlements got to the size that several families shared the land, who was suppose to know what could be planted, were to raise the chickens, were to graze the cattle, slop the pigs, and herd the sheep? Exactly how much land was needed to feed my family?

The farmers of the day came up with a system known as "the legal acre". This was based upon the barleycorn measurements outlined in the last post titled: "Leaps and Bounds". Remember that 3 lengths of the barleycorn defined the "inch". Three inches made a "palmbreath", and 3 palmbreaths made the "foot". The yoke became the next unit of measurement seeing how every farmer had his plow and yoke.

There was 4 feet in the short yoke, 8 feet in the mid-yoke, 12 feet in the armpit yoke, and 16 feet in the long yoke. A "rod" was defined as the long yoke (16 feet) in the caller's hand [the one doing the plowing] with the middle peg of that yoke in his other hand, and as far as he reaches with it with his arm stretch out. This method would set the measurement of the legal acre. The width would be one rod, and the length would be 30 times the rod. Thus, the legal acre was 16 ft. wide by 480 ft. long. [7,680 sq. feet] There was to be 4 such acres in the "toft" (homestead). So there you have it. A family (homestead) had roughly 4 legal acres to make a living. You could plow long rows before you had to turn around!

The measurements are taken from: "Hywel Dda The Law", translated and edited by Dafydd Jenkins, Gomer Press, 1990, p. 121.

Leaps and Bounds

The claim to land ownership was central to the cultural groups that came to our island. The earliest to arrive of course had "first dibs", when they settled and occupied the land. The "open spaces" thus became distinguishable by boundaries, based upon these claims to ownership.

Land ownership initially centered around the family units that occupied, farmed, had their young, grazed their animals upon, and buried their dead within [or upon] the land. Generations evolved that came to expect this land would be passed down to the next generation. Conflicts frequently arose when one member of the family thought they owned, or deserved, a sections of land that another family member claimed. Family feuds would arise creating all sorts of dilemmas for the greater good. Keeping everyone happy was a real challenge. Where are these boundaries anyway? Who is going to make me stay on my side of fence? Who's in charge here? I'll just take it! No one can take it form me! My might makes right!

The family groups that got along together would seem to have a better chance of survival. Frequently, one family member [or several] became the head and judge of these land disputes. [Or other family disputes as well.] His, or their, decision(s) would become the common practice of the family group, thus establishing some sort of order and authority among those living upon the land. If these decisions worked well, they might be adopted by other family groups or passed down to the next generations. Ultimately, a land holding system would be in place allowing for a more stable environment. These decisions, and others, became the common practice of the tribe...the beginnings of "common law".

Now it became evident very early, that one would soon have to figure out a way to measure this land and its boundaries. The farmers seem to have started things off, by using the corn plant that all would have grown and eaten. A kernel of corn held in the hand could be see by all and understood. [Grains of barleycorn were uniformly equal in size!] Three lengths of barleycorn was to equal one inch! Nine barley corn lined up in the palm of the hand was called a "palmbreath", and three "palmbreaths" would equal a foot. There were to be three feet in the step, and three steps in the leap. Three leaps would be called the land. [used as a measurement] A thousand lands in the mile. So 3000 leaps would be a mile! Gee, leaps and bounds! More to come.

These measurements are taken from "Hywel Dda The Law" translated by Dafydd Jenkins, Gomer Press, 1990. pp. 120-122.

Parish Registers

In September, 1538, Henry VIII issued an order to every parish priest. Each parish priest was to start keeping a record of all wedding, christening and burials held in that parish. Each parish was to supply their own register, and could choose their own format in organizing the records. All entries from this point were to be make in Latin, and Welsh was banned from any official record. The Welsh language could be found in place-names, personal names, and occasionally in marginal notes.

For the genealogist, it is important to recognize that the usual dates recorded in these records include the "date of baptism" not birth, the "date of burial", not death, and the "date of marriage".

A detailed account leading up to these ancient parish registers can be found in a text, "Key to The Ancient Parish Registers of England & Wales", by Arthur Meredyth Burke. He describes the social and political response of the times, including of course the worry that this would only serve as a means to "tax" the churches.

What this requirement did do is produce a large number of "clandestine marriages". This is where those who did not agree with the new church organization, or authority, sought marriage outside the parish church. The "nonconformists" they were called. Roman Catholics ("Popery"), Quakers, Jews, Methodists, and other "dissenters" would not count their marriage acceptable under this Church of England. For the genealogist, this will mean that many of these parish records may not record a marriage, even though the family records state one occurred. This may also mean that your family may have been a member of one of these "nonconformists" groups. Certainly, many of these groups came to the shores of the colonies.

The main reference is:

Burke, A.M., Key To The Ancient Parish Registers of England & Wales, Clearfield Co.,Baltimore, MD, 1989. [First published London, 1908, reprinted by Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, 1962.]